Explainable artificial intelligence and ensemble learning for hepatocellular carcinoma classification: State of the art, performance, and clinical implications.

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Brier score: 0.191 (internal), 0.195 (external)", "Chemotherapy, radiation therapy, lung metastases (reflect metastatic burden and treatment history)"], ["[112]", "RF (best performing), NB, LR, KNN", "LIME", "NCBI GSE14520 microarray dataset (445 samples, 22268 genes)", "Accuracy: 96.53%; Precision: 97.30%; AUC: 0.95", "Gene expression profiles (e.g., TP53, CTNNB1 mutations linked to tumorigenesis)"], ["[118]", "Stacking Ensemble", "LIME", "Data from 1622 liver cancer patients (46 variables)", "AUC: 0.9826 (training), 0.9675 (testing)", "Tumor size, vascular invasion (key pathological determinants of staging)"], ["[127]", "AutoML (TPOT) leading to a Tree-based model (likely ensemble)", "TreeSHAP", "Publicly accessible metabolomics data of HCC patients and cirrhotic controls", "AUC: 0.81", "Metabolite ratios (e.g., glutamate/glutamine reflecting metabolic reprogramming in malignancy)"], ["[67]", "Stacking ensemble", "", "Dataset from 165 HCC patients at Coimbra's Hospital and University Centre (49 features)", "Accuracy: 0.9030; F1-score: 0.8857", "AFP, child score"], ["[126]", "RF, RR, AdaBoost, DT, LR", "", "Hospital Authority Data Collaboration Lab in Hong Kong (n = 124006 patients with chronic viral hepatitis)", "AUC: 0.842 (RR, training), 0.844 (RR, validation); 0.992 (RF, training), 0.837 (RF, validation)", "Viral load, platelet count (indicators of viral activity and portal hypertension)"], ["[70]", "GB (best performing), RT, RF, XGBoost", "SHAP", "Liver disease dataset", "Accuracy, precision, recall, specificity, AUC (high values reported)", "Bilirubin, albumin (liver function markers correlating with prognosis)"], ["[6]", "RF (best performing)", "SHAP", "Data from patients with HCC and HBV (training set: n = 361, Validation set: n = 155)", "AUC: 0.996 (training), 0.993 (validation)", "AFP, AST/ALT ratio, GGT (liver damage and tumor biomarkers validated against BCLC criteria)"], ["[125]", "XGBoost", "SHAP", "MRI data: 117 patients (training), 33 (external validation), 30 (prospective validation)", "AUC: 0.835 (training), 0.830 (internal), 0.816 (external), 0.776 (prospective)", "Arterial hyperenhancement, venous washout (LI-RADS imaging features for malignancy); 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